On a Norwegian island within the Arctic Circle, researchers have unearthed the fossilized remains of a marine monster they call “Predator X.” The 50-foot beast is a new species of pliosaur, and researchers say the enormous reptile ruled the Jurassic seas some 147 million years ago…. “Its anatomy, physiology and hunting strategy all point to it being the ultimate predator – the most dangerous creature to patrol the Earth’s oceans” [New Scientist], the Natural History Museum at the University of Oslo said in a breathless press release.
Predator X swept through the seas some 147 million years ago during the Jurassic Period, when dinosaurs walked the land. The creature swam with its four flippers, and relied on its crushing jaw power to bring down its prey–lead researcher Joern Hurum estimates that its had 33,000 pounds per square inch bite force. Says Hurum: “With a skull that’s more than 10 feet long you’d expect the bite to be powerful but this is off the scale…. It’s much more powerful than T-Rex” [Reuters]. Hurum has said that a previously discovered fossil pliosaur was big enough to chomp on a small car. He said the bite estimates for the latest fossil forced a rethink. “This one is more like it could crush a Hummer,” he said [Reuters]. Hurum theorizes that the 45-ton predator feasted on fish and marine reptiles, including ichthyosaurs and long-necked plesiosaurs.
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A bizarre fish discovered off the coast of an Indonesian island has officially been declared a new species, and given a name that researchers say celebrates its oddity: Histiophryne psychedelica. The creature, a type of frogfish, has beige and pink stripes swirling away from its eyes, and has leg-like fins on both sides of its body. But researchers writing in the journal Copeia say the psychedelic fish uses those fins in a form of locomotion never before seen in fish.
When the fish was first spotted by scuba divers off the coast of Ambon island last year, the divers described it moving away from them in a series of short hops, its pelvic fins pushing it off the sea bed with each bounce. “The overall impression” says the Copeia research paper, was of “an inflated rubber ball bouncing along the bottom” [BBC News].
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Prehistoric fish had sexual reproduction figured out 380 million years ago, a new fossil study has confirmed. Researchers examined the fossil of one species of armored placoderm fish and realized that the fossil showed a 2-inch-long embryo within the fish’s body cavity, indicating internal fertilization, or sex as we know it. Palaeontologist Zerina Johanson says: “We expected that these early fishes would show a more primitive type of reproduction, where sperm and eggs combine in the water and embryos develop outside the fish. This discovery is incredibly important because evidence of reproductive biology is extremely rare in the fossil record” [Telegraph].
Researchers originally thought the tiny bones within the fossil were the remains of the fish’s final meal, but they decided to reexamine the 380-million-year-old fossil after discovering embryos in the fossilized remains of another species of ancient fish last year. A closer look revealed that the placoderm also had a bun in the oven, says lead researcher John Long. “We could see that the new specimens had the same bone structure as the previous embryos, were the same species as the adult, they did not have any broken or stomach-etched features (from digestive acids or from being chomped) and that they were at the same stage of growth as the previous embryos,” Long wrote in an email. “All of these facts proved they were embryos, not prey items” [LiveScience].
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A new genetic analysis has shaken up the tree of life, dispelling the common assumption that sea sponges or comb jellies are the original ancestors of all animals. That original animal, also referred to as the “ur-animal,” is thought to have given rise to both the “lower” animals (Cnidaria), such as coral and jellyfish, and “higher” animals (Bilataria), such as insects and humans. Based on the new study, researchers are now putting forth a new classification, which would place sponges among the “lower” animals, leaving an open spot for the original animal. “It’s a question that has plagued animal biologists for a couple hundred years: What could be the mother of all animals?” said [researcher] Rob DeSalle… “We’ve turned it upside down” [Wired Science].
Taxonomy has come a long way since the Linnaean system, based largely on comparative anatomy, was introduced in 1735. The research team fed morphological data on the appearance of animals from 24 taxa together with genetic information into a computer program that assessed similarities and differences to generate a phylogenetic tree of life [Nature News]. The results placed placozoans, a simple amoeba-like but multi-celled organism, as a more ancient animal than even the sea sponges. Yet, at the same time, the data suggests that placozoans is not the last common ancestor of all animals because they are not directly related to the more complex Bilataria. “It fits in with what you might think is the most basal animal. It’s only got three cell layers and four cell types. Its motility is primitive. It lives in warm oceans. It’s got all the earmarks of the thing that gave rise to all animal life,” said DeSalle [of placozoans]. “But that’s not what the results show. And though placozoa is the ur-cousin of complicated life, we still don’t know the ur-mother” [Wired Science].
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Two-headed fish are turning up in Australia’s Noosa River, and experts believe it’s due to something in the water. Millions of fish larvae have been found with two heads (that means one more eye than Blinky) and none of them survive to adulthood. Aquatic animal specialist Matt Lando puts the blame on noxious chemicals wafted from a nearby macadamia nut farm. He said, “When we used the water on-site or have taken bass from the Noosa River those fish appear to have been contaminated and they give rise to deformed or convulsing larvae… I have been working in aquaculture for 10 years and this is the first time I have ever seen anything like it” [AFP].
Last October, Lando sent a report to the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries in which he identified the pesticide endosulfan and the fungicide carbendazim, both used on the neighboring macadamia nut plantation, as the likely culprits. “The timing between the mist spraying and the affected larvae fits hand in glove,” he said. Dr Landos’s report also found that chickens, sheep and horses raised at the Sunland Fish Hatchery at Boreen Point were recording abnormally high levels of foetal deaths and birth defects [The Sydney Morning Herald]. Both chemicals are currently legal in Australia. Carbendazim was voluntarily withdrawn from the U.S. market in 2001 by the chemical company Dupont. Endosulfan is already banned in 55 countries and New Zealand will become the 56th starting this Friday.
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Paleontologists believe that majestic pterosaurs ruled the skies during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, soaring overhead on their leathery wings while dinosaurs stomped over the ground below. But researchers recently began wondering how exactly those “winged lizards” lifted off, as some of them weighed more than 500 pounds and were as tall as a giraffe. Last year, researchers tried to figure out how they got off the ground by looking at the largest bird now flying, the albatross. They concluded that anything much bigger couldn’t get off the ground the same way [AP], because the wing muscles wouldn’t be able to generate enough lift. But researcher Mike Habib now says pterosaurs shouldn’t be compared to birds. “The catch is that they are not built like birds,” Habib said [AP].
Habib thinks he has the answer to the pterosaurs’ launching maneuver. When the pterosaurs’ strong wings were folded they created “knuckles” that the animals rested on in four-legged stance, he says, which allowed them to take off in a motion akin to leap-frogging. The back legs kicked off first, Habib says, and then the front legs gave a mighty push to propel them into the air. This procedure would negate the need for launching aids that other paleontologists have suggested, like strong winds, a downslope, or a cliff to jump from. “Using all four legs, it takes less than a second to get off of flat ground, no wind, no cliffs,” Habib said. “This was a good thing to be able to do if you lived in the late Cretaceous period and there were hungry tyrannosaurs wandering around” [LiveScience].
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The odd-looking spookfish is the only vertebrate known to have mirrors in its eyes, according to a new report. The mirrors gather and focus light better than lenses, which spookfish also have, and appear to be an adaptation for living in the murky depths of the Pacific Ocean. Scientists discovered the spookfish’s unusual anatomy after examining the first specimen of the fish ever caught alive. Researcher Ron Douglas found the rare specimen last year in the deep waters between Samoa and New Zealand, but no one on the research boat knew what it was. “It caught my attention because it looked like it had four eyes, and vertebrates with four eyes don’t exist,” says Douglas [New Scientist].
In fact, the spookfish only has two. Spookfish, also known as barreleyes, are a family of deep-sea fish with tubular eyes, rather like telescopes, that point upwards to capture the minimal sunlight that filters down from above. Each eye also has a part that points downward, forming what looks like a second pair of eyes. When researcher Julian Partridge looked at sections of the spookfish eye under the microscope, he discovered that the downward-pointing parts contain mirrors, made of tiny plates of guanine crystals, that help direct light onto the retina. Partridge explains that the mirrored “diverticular” eyes help capture light emitted by other animals: “At these depths it is flashes of bioluminescent light from other animals that the spookfish are largely looking for. The diverticular eyes image these flashes, warning the spookfish of other animals that are active, and otherwise unseen, below its vulnerable belly” [BBC News].
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Fiddler crabs take carefully calibrated steps to find their way home, according to a new study in Current Biology [subscription required]. Scientists testing the tiny crustaceans’ homing skills found that both the length and number of their strides were guided by some sort of internal mileage counter. This allows them to plot a direct path back to their sandy burrows even if the burrows are out of sight. “We were able to measure every step by every leg of every animal in this experiment, and since these are eight-legged animals, that’s a lot,” [Scientific American] says co-author John E. Layne.
Many animals appear to have built-in GPS systems, although exactly how they function is not well-understood. Birds and sea turtles may use the position of the stars and the earth’s magnetic field to navigate. The honeybee has been shown to use the flow of the passing landscape across its field of vision. Some other animals may be able to gauge linear acceleration and use that to determine distance [The New York Times]. The way animals keep track of their movements and the distance they’ve traveled is known as path integration.
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The secret to a dolphin’s speed is sheer strength, according to a new study that used high-tech measurements to finally put a 70-year-old conundrum to rest. In 1936, British zoologist James Gray incredulously observed dolphins swimming at speeds of over 20 mph. He estimated that the dolphins should only be able to produce a tenth of the necessary force and imagined that something about the dolphins’ skin allowed them to overcome the force of drag in the water and reach high speeds. “For the first time, I think we can safely say the puzzle is solved,” said [researcher] Tim Wei…”The short answer is that dolphins are simply much stronger than Gray or many other people ever imagined.” [BBC News].
Although most biologists had long rejected what became known as Gray’s Paradox, there has never been a study to determine the strength of a dolphin’s kick. To observe the powerful swimmers up close, researchers recruited two retired U.S. Navy dolphins, Primo and Puka, to swim in a specially designed tank filled with tiny bubbles that make the movement of water visible. The tank was too small to capture video of the dolphins at full speed, so they also videotaped them performing tail stands on the water (think Sea World). The thrust was calculated based on the dolphins’ weight and measurements of the wake created by their tails [AP].
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On the seafloor near the Bahamas, researchers have discovered a single-celled organism about the size of a grape, and they say the unusual organism raises interesting questions about the evolution of complex, multicellular animals. The oversized protists were found at the end of long, linear tracks that appear to have been made by the slowly rolling amoebas; lead researcher Mikhail Matz says the tracks resemble fossilized impressions from over 1 billion years ago, which scientists had assumed were made by multicellular worms. “We were looking for pretty animals that have eyes, are coloured, or glow in the dark; instead, the most interesting find was the organism that was blind, brainless, and completely covered in mud,” he said [BBC News].
The origin of multicellular life has been shrouded in mystery, because few animals fossils have been found that predate the beginning of the Cambrian Period around 542 million years ago. Some researchers point to rare Precambrian “trace fossils” – such as slither prints left in ancient sea bottoms – as evidence for complex animal life predating the Cambrian. The oldest of these trace fossils yet found are 1.8 billion years old, about three times older than any animal in the fossil record [The Scientist]. However, the new tracks raise another possibility: that the ancient traces were created by large single-celled organisms.
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A new study of a the fossilized remains of the Tiktaalik, the “walking fish” that illuminates how swimming fish evolved into land-dwelling amphibians, shows that there was more to the transition than the switch from fins to limbs. The study shows that the head and braincase were changing, a mobile neck was emerging and a bone associated with underwater feeding and gill respiration was diminishing in size, a beginning of the bone’s adaptation for an eventual role in hearing for land animals [The New York Times].
The creature, dubbed Tiktaalik roseae — or, to be less formal, Fishapod — lived 375 million years ago 600 miles north of the Arctic Circle in a subtropical floodplain that eventually became Ellesmere Island, where it was discovered in 2004 [Wired News]. The fishapod has already earned its reputation as a “missing link” in evolutionary history due to its sturdy, jointed fins and its dual breathing system, with both gills and lungs. But the new study suggests that changes to the animal’s head and the development of the first neck also played a critical role in its evolution.
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Almost two miles beneath the earth’s surface in a South African goldmine, researchers have found a new species of bacteria that lives in total isolation from any other organism. The discovery offers the first known example of an ecosystem that isn’t a complex web of different life forms, but is instead hosts just one self-sufficient species. The bacteria, Desulforudis audaxviator, is able to extract all its food and energy directly from the surrounding water and rocks, and researchers say the independent microbe offers a glimpse of the shape life could take on other planets.
Researchers wanted to know what organisms were living in the mine’s deep fissures, a habitat completely devoid of light and oxygen, so they analyzed the genes present in a water sample to determine what species lived there. They filtered a total of 5,600 liters of mine water to get their sample, which gave other microbes plenty of opportunities to make themselves known. Of the DNA sequences obtained from this sample, over 99.9 percent were from this single species; over half of the remainder were obvious contaminants from their own lab [Ars Technica].
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Marine biologists have gotten the first footage ever of a school of fish living 4.8 miles beneath the ocean’s surface in the cold, pitch black, and fiercely pressurized habitat of the Pacific’s Japan Trench. A video shows the pale white hadal snailfish, officially known as Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis, happily wriggling around on the seabed, despite water pressure that the researchers say is equivalent to 1,600 elephants standing on the roof of a Mini.
The fish belong to a species previously known only from five pickled specimens trawled up by Russian scientists in the 1950s, said [researcher] Monty Priede [National Geographic News]. Priede’s team of British and Japanese researchers found the rare snailfish during their exploration of deep, narrow marine trenches in Pacific Ocean, and say it was the deepest ever sighting of live fish.
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A newly discovered ant from the Amazon rainforest is so strange that researchers have named it “the ant from Mars.” Found in Brazil, the ant has a pale body and no eyes, says [lead researcher] Christian Rabeling…. Its mouthparts stick out like sharp forceps and are longer than the rest of its head. Its DNA may be even more interesting. Genetic analysis puts the new ant so far from other species that it deserves its own subfamily [Science News].
Researchers named the subterranean ant Martialis heureka, which translates to “eureka ant from Mars,” because of the new species‘ odd morphology and because of their own excitement over finding it. Researchers say that a DNA analysis suggests that the M. heureka evolved earlier than any other living ant, and that it has changed little over 50 million years. “This discovery lends support to the idea that blind, subterranean predator ants arose at the dawn of ant evolution,” Rabeling said [LiveScience].
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About 240 million years ago, a 15-foot amphibian with a nasty bite ruled the Antarctic plains, say paleontologists who have described the creature for the first time. Fossils show that the predator, newly named Kryostega collinsoni, had an extra set of teeth protruding from the roof of its mouth, which helped it shred flesh and hold struggling prey still in its mouth.
The animal, which researchers called Antarctica’s top predator in the Triassic Period, resembled a modern crocodile but was actually a temnospondyl, a prehistoric amphibian that was an early relative of salamanders and frogs. Because of their odd mixture of characteristics, members of this group are sometimes nicknamed “crocamanders” or “frogodiles” [Discovery News]. The new species will be described in the forthcoming issue of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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